The village of Marpha is situated in the upper Kali Gandaki valley north of the Himalayan main range (ref. Fig. 1: Settlements of Mustang District). It belongs to an area called Panchgaon in Nepali, which traditionally consisted of five villages. The indigenous population of these five villages in the southern part of Mustang district is the Thakalis, who speak a tibeto-burman language. Among the villages the ethno-cultural setting of Marpha is somewhat unique because the inhabitants of Marpha identify themselves as a distinct ethnical subgroup of Thakalis called Mawatan, or Mawatan Thakali (Vinding, 1998), or simply Marphali. Today the Marphalis still follow their traditional social rules in many respects: group endogamy and the traditional laws of heritage are still practised. Inside their community the Marphalis speak a special dialect of the Thakali language that was studied and well documented by S. Georg (1996). When talking to village outsiders, the multilingual Marphalis speak in Nepali or Tibetan. Nepali is also the official school language. With tourists, Marphali shopkeepers and lodge-owners use English. The village has at present about 650 inhabitants, but many Marphalis have migrated to other places in Nepal, so the absolute number of people identifying themselves as Mawatan Thakalis is higher. The social relations inside the Marphali community, and in particular the relationship between migrants and their traditional home village, are intact and strong.
Marpha is situated at an altitude of 2650 m on a fluvial terrace along the right river bank of the Kali Gandaki. The village leans against an extremely steep mountain slope, whose niche-like shape protects the settlement from the wind (ref. the attached map). The two-story white houses are flatroofed and stand wall to wall. As indicated on the map, Marpha has the typical compact village plan of Thakali settlements. As noted by the American architect K.D. Blair Salant (1987), the compact village plan can be attributed to a scarcity of land and represents an adaptation to the rough and extremely windy climate of the upper Kali Gandaki valley. In addition, cultural rules were responsible for the original clustering - Marpha is a strictly endogamous village. Until some years ago, there was a rule that prohibited the building of a house beyond the village gates (ref. map).
At the mountain side of the village there is a 3500 m high and steep slope of solid dark metamorphic rock. At its base the slope is mantled by relicts of Pleistocene lake sediments. When covered with vegetation, these yellow-brownish sediments are relative stable. Because of the nearly total removal of the vegetation cover, the sediment layers are prone to gully-like water erosion and even to abrasion by the strong valley winds. Huge pediment-like cones produced by recent erosion and rockfall material are found along the foot of the slope. The geomorphic processes responsible for the retreat of the slope and the weathering front are still occurring, endangering the upper parts of the village to rockfall and smaller landslides. Consequently only stables and threshing places are concentrated there, whereas residential houses and shops are situated downslope in the safer parts of the village. Erosion and downslope transport of the lake sediments also have positive aspects: for example, the young lake sediments, because of their loess-like composition and texture, are the parent material for fertile and easy to cultivate soils. As the result of regular inputs of dung, black and fertile soils, called hortisols have developed.
Due to the shortage of arable land and given that the main old trade route crosses the village from south to north, Marpha has never specialized only in farming. The villagers have always engaged in business, and the village remains a stopover for traders and their mules or goats that carry wool, salt and rice. After the decline of the Tibet trade, the business-minded Marphalis needed only a small step to enter the tourist business. The spacious, and for traditional Thakali houses typical, courtyards that were once used to keep and protect packing animals and goods overnight were changed to artrium-like restplaces and gardens for tourists. Along the main lane of the village, the Marphali house-owners opened comfortable lodges and restaurants. Tibetans arriving every morning from the old refugee camp, which is less than one hour down the valley, have rented and opened curio shops or are selling their goods on the open street. Schools, a public library, and the community house signify an active public village life.
But despite the functional change, the design of most houses has been preserved. As in former times the flat roofs are encircled by huge piles of fire wood. Some of the oldest wood stores were collected by the great-grandfathers of the current occupants. As Marphalis were farmers, the flat roof functioned originally as a drying place for grain and cheese; today it is used for drying apple-chips and vegetables. As K.D. Blair Salant (1987) argues, in the old houses the underlying influence of household self-sufficiency and the need to grow and store as much food grain as possible are still evident (Fig. 2: A Marpha House (after K. D. Blair Salant, 1987)).
The settlements along the Kali Gandaki river are said to be relatively young. This seems also to be the case with the settlement Marpha. Mari, as the villagers call the recent settlement in their dialect, presumably means "downhill". The name seems appropriate because a former village site, today called "Old Marpha", was situated 350 m higher and is called by the villagers Dzong, which means in Tibetan "fortress" or "fortified place". Many questions about the history and the exact age of the two settlement sites of Marpha are still unanswered. There seems to be some evidence that Old Marpha, like other settlements in the surrounding area, was once protected by a fortress or dzong. Only at the end of the 18th century, when Thak Khola was integrated in the young Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal and the political situation, compared to medieval times, became less insecure, was the village shifted from the strategic and safe upper position down to the more business-oriented location along the trade route (ref. Pohl, 1996; Vinding, 1998). In addition dendrochronological data seem to indicate the young age of New Marpha.
At present the houses of Old Marpha are in ruins and only the foundations can still be seen. The field complexes that belonged to the abandoned village are more or less deserted, but were never totally abandoned over the last 50 years. In humid summers and from time to time, buckwheat or peas are cultivated on these marginal lands. Interestingly, some 30 years ago apple cultivation was successfully started by a wealthy farmer and politician (with his residence in Marpha and in Kathmandu). Even several new houses have been constructed and are used temporarily. In contrast to New Marpha, which has abundant water resources, insufficient irrigation water and the marginal soils of Old Marpha seem to be the main barrier to a sustainable recultivation of the abandoned field complexes.
Similar to all Thakalis, the Marphalis are lamaistic buddhists. Typically, the entrance to the village is watched by chörten and coloured mane-walls (ref. to the map) and there is no rooftop without prayerflags. At the centre of Marpha is the village gomba (buddhist temple) and a recently constructed and settlement-dominating lamaistic monastery. In the rock and sediment wall high above the village, and therefore difficult to reach, is the old gomba (Pra Gomba). The spectacular white and red coloured chörten, called Rincin Gomba, which has high ritual importance for the villagers, can be seen from far. On a flat, terrace-like surface on the way up to Old Marpha are several chörten at a place called Nambar Dzong, which serves as cremation ground. Even at the giddy heights above the village there are fluttering prayer flags. As is common in lamaistic regions, the cultural landscape of Marpha and its surroundings have been profoundly shaped by religion. With regard to village history, the old gomba or Pra Gomba seems to be of special interest. The old gomba was clearly constructed originally in a cave hollowed from the lake sediments. As the sediment front has retreated through weathering and erosion, the outer parts of the cave gomba have been destroyed.
The river terrace between the village and the river bed features an oasis of irrigated fields (ref. to the map). Due to the low rate of precipitation (less than 400 mm/year ) in the rainshadow of the main Himalayan range, the arable land has to be irrigated. The fields are all terraced and levelled for irrigation by means of stonewalls. Presently the contrast between the brown, steppe-like landscape surrounding the village of Marpha and the green fields is striking. In the early 1900s a more or less closed forest of Cupressus and Juniperus trees still extended downhill to the village border. This forest was subsequently destroyed by overutilization.
With an annual average temperature of 11°C and a relatively mild winter (average January temperature of 3°C) two harvests are possible in Marpha (ref. the cropping calendar on the land use map) and the range of cultivable products is relatively large. During the cold season, traditionally staple crops such as winter wheat and especially winter barley are grown. The latter is important for subsistence in the high altitude areas of the Himalayas, where roasted barley flour, or tsampa, is still highly valued by Tibetans and Thakalis. Wheat and barley, even in the form of tsampa, are fed to the riding and packing animals. During summer, when there is no frost, buckwheat and mustard are traditionally cultivated. From buckwheat flour a mushy but highly regarded porridge for young and old is made; the green leaves of buckwheat are used as spinach. Potatoes, maize and vegetables such as cauliflower, cabbage or carrots were only introduced in the 20th century. Since the land use map of Marpha was surveyed six years ago, the land in maize has increased. Maize, which requires less labor to cultivate than does buckwheat, is fed only to animals, especially horses and goats. The only indigenous vegetables are the radish and a white turnip called mulla. From barley, buckwheat and even from imported rice home made liquor, or rakshi, is distilled.
The harvest yields achieved in Marpha are high, in particular the yields of barley and buckwheat, which often bring up more than a 20 fold return on the invested seed. The excellent quality of apples produced in Marpha is proberbal. The high yields in Marpha are due mainly to natural preconditions such as calcareous and silty soils, suitable thermic properties and sufficient irrigation, and secondarily to intensive farming practices. Thanks to the planting of a winter and a summer crop, the growing season is optimally exploited, irrigation is employed, and fertilization is carried out by means of qualitatively high grade natural dung from cows and goats.
As in other valleys of the dry Inner Himalayas, fruit trees such as apricots and peaches have long been cultivated in the upper Kali Gandaki area. But the small fruits produced by the old varieties could not compete with the high yield varieties grown today. Because of the activities of the nearby "National Temperate Horticulture Research Centre", modern fruit cultivation - in particular apples as cash crop - has been introduced successfully in Mustang, especially around Marpha. Strongly connected with the modernization of agriculture in Mustang is the name of Pasang Sherpa, an extraordinary man who came from East Nepal, but was trained in France. As director of the Horticulture Research Centre he introduced improved fruit tree varieties and he taught modern techniques of plant propagation. Thanks to his contributions the Nepalese government established a powerstation in Chokhopani. Marpha was among the first villages of the area to be provided with electricity. To solve the problem of increasing overproduction of fruits, the Horticulture Research Centre, as well as the villagers, started to produce fruit juice and apple brandy. A serious barrier to the further extension of fruit tree cultivation is the daily storm-like valley wind (Haffner, 1997). At wind exposed places like the central parts of the valley bottom and above Marpha at Nambar Dzong, which means windy place, the windspeed can easily reach more than 20 m/sec, whereas in areas sheltered by walls or inside the clustered village centre the windspeed drops to 1-2 m/sec.
On the opposite side of the Kali Gandaki river Tibetans from the old refugee camp are allowed to cultivate crops. Despite the construction of a special pipe crossing the Kali Gandaki, the supply of irrigation water is insufficient. In addition the soils are poor and the flat valley bottom is exposed to extreme valley winds. Cultivation on these marginal lands is practised only in a form of low cropping intensity, labelled extensive cultivation on the map.
The 200 ha of arable land in Marpha - only 145 ha are irrigated - are owned by 182 families. The holdings per household are far too small to guarantee subsistence. Moreover rice cannot be grown in Marpha because of climatic constraints. As a result this basic and highly favoured food has to be bought from outside. As the income from agricultural activities was insufficient, Marphalis traditionally relied on additional sources of income such as livestock, trade and transportation business. Since the transit trade has declined, many secure further income through local business and tourism (lodge and inn business). Mixed economies are characteristic of most Nepalese mountain dwellers and seem to be traditional in the case of the Marpha population as well, although the emphasis on economic activities may have shifted over time.
Given that arable land is so scarce in Marpha, the existence of plots lying fallow, or even abandoned, is surprising (cf. the land use map). A shortage of labour or out-migration of family members may account for the non-cultivation. Usually plots within the irrigated area are lying fallow only temporarily and are not permanently abandoned.
Drinking and irrigation water are diverted by a channel system from the Pom Kyu, a small river flowing into the Kali Gandaki only a short distance north of the village (ref. map). The source of the Pom Kyu is at a high altitude near permanent snow and ice fields. Consequently, even in the dry season this small river provides sufficient water for Marpha. Until 1975 the main water supply for the village was an open channel along the main lane of the village. Women not only fetched the drinking water from this channel, but it was also used as a waterpond for animals and for washing clothes. About 25 years ago a pipe system for drinking water was installed, and today tourist lodges are even able to offer rooms with warm and cold running water. Since the old channel was covered with stone plates, and because drinking and waste water were strictly separated, the hygienic conditions in Marpha have improved greatly.
Irrigation water is needed mainly during the warmer season. Crops are usually irrigated in the first weeks after sowing and then every 15 to 20 days. Fruit trees also have to be watered, especially after planting. The supply of irrigation water is sufficient throughout the year, but only for the arable land situated on the right side of the Kali Gandaki. For the field complexes on the opposite side of the river, there are no natural irrigation facilities. To solve this problem, a special channel and a pipe were constructed to transport irrigation water from the Pom Kyu across the Kali Gandaki. To this point, the water available for irrigation is far from sufficient.
Nearly all families in Marpha own animals. Not less than 200 mules and donkeys are kept as packing animals. They are usually grazing on the steppe-like meadows above the village. When used for labour, they need to be furnished with additional food like barley or other grains. Up to now the most comfortable and fastest means of travelling in Mustang is on horseback. The horses are grazed in the wetlands near the Kali Gandaki. Over the last few years it has been a good business to rent horses to tourists. Meat production is the main purpose for keeping goats. Every morning about 600 goats in three or four flocks climb up the steep slope behind the village and are responsible for the overgrazing in the surrounding of the village. Bulls are kept mainly for ploughing and cows for milk production. They are kept in stables and fed with green fodder collected daily from the fields or brought down from the forest. Bulls, cows, mules and horses are also allowed to graze on fallow lands. Six families own together about 250 yaks. During summer the yaks graze on the high meadows at an altitude of above 3500 m; in winter they move downslope to the mountain forest. Yaks are brought to the village only when they are needed as packing animals, or are to be sold or slaughtered. Yak-owners are usually regarded as wealthy. Overnight, and during extreme winter-days, all animals except yaks are kept in stables or in sheltered places. Their dung is carefully collected and transported to the fields for use as fertilizer. The supply of meat in Marpha cannot satisfy the needs of the local population and the increasing number of tourists, so additional sources, particularly poultry, sheep and goats are necessary. The goats especially are imported from Tibet.
Marpha has changed little since the map survey was completed. Only a new, village-dominating monastery was built. As in neighbouring villages, we have observed a revitalization of the lamaism. In the 1980s, the village gombas were more or less abandoned, and many monks had migrated to Kathmandu. At present a young generation of monks is going back to the villages of the traditional lamaistic regions. Because of outside support, regular contributions from the villagers, and fees collected from tourists, the monasteries have a solid financial background. This ensures a flowering religious life. As in many other tourist places of Nepal, the standard of lodges and small hotels is much improved. Rooms with attached bath are available and a glass-covered wintergarden affords a spectacular view of the High Himalayas.
Looking back to our first visits to Marpha several decades ago, the living conditions in the village are much changed and the quality of life has improved. With medical care, especially for children, and the introduction of solid hygienic and sanitary conditions (clean drinking water, toilets) life expectancy has, as in other parts of Nepal, increased substantially. The school facilities are also much better. Thakali villages like Marpha are less remote than in former times. Thirty years ago it took 10 days by foot to reach the next motorable road. Today 2 - 3 days are needed, and by horse only one long day. Going by plane from the neighbouring Jomosom airstrip it is possible to reach Pokhara and Kathmandu in less than one hour.
Because of the influence of modern ideas, but also due to the ideas propagated by the Annapurna Conservation Project, the attitude of the villagers towards their natural environment is slowly changing. As an example, for the first time in centuries the village community decided to protect the heavily overused cypress and juniper forest above the village. Moreover the land use map documents afforestation of mainly willows along the edges of fluvial terraces endangered by river erosion as well as in the river bed of the Pom Kyu and Kali Gandaki.
On the one hand, various aspects of their economic and cultural life clearly show that the villagers of Marpha keep an open mind with regard to innovation and modernization. On the other hand, the community of Marphalis still follows its religious and social traditions. To this point - and luckily we should say - all the before-mentioned innovations or modernizations have not changed the unique, perfectly designed traditional village architecture. Among foreigners and non-foreigners Marpha has the reputation as one of the most beautiful villages in Nepal. But if the plan to construct a motorable road along the Kali Gandaki is realized, the village Marpha as the cultural heritage of the Marphalis will be thoroughly changed, if not destroyed.
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